Sound Design

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Sound design is a conceptually creative/technical field. It covers all non-compositional elements of a film, a play, a music performance or recording, computer game software or any other multimedia project. A person who practices the art of sound design is known as a Sound Designer.

The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences recognizes the finest or most aesthetic sound design for a film with the Academy Award for Best Sound Editing,[1] historically given to an English-language film. The new Tony Award for Best Sound Design is to be awarded for the best sound design in American theatre.[2]

Sound Design can also be defined as: "The manipulation of audio elements to achieve a desired effect."

==History==

Using sound to underscore actions in plays and dances started back in [[Prehistoric]] times.  These people would use sound and music to evoke emotions and reflect a mood.  At its earliest, it was use in religious practices, for healing or just for fun. [[Prehistoric Music|Wiki link Prehistoric Music]]  In ancient Japan, events called ''[[kagura]]'' were performed in Shinto Shrines with music, dance and some mime.Brazell, Karen (1999) Traditional Japanese Theater. Columbia University Press ISBN 0-231-10873-7  This is an example of the beginnings of music and sound being used in theatre.

Much of what makes up modern theatre came from the Medieval Times, from a form of theatre called [[Commedia dell'arte]].  These plays used music and sound effects to enhance the shows.  This is where the slapstick came from{{citation needed|date=May 2009}}.  After this time, was the Elizabethan Theatre.  During these shows, the crew would not only use music, but would have sound effects that came from off stage.  These could be bells, whistles, horns, etc.  These cues would be written down in the script to be played at the appropriate time.  Kaye, Deena and Lebrecht, James (1992) Sound and Music For The Theatre. Back Stage Books, an imprint of Watson-Guptill Publications ISBN 0823076644

Italian Futurist composer [[Luigi Russolo]] built mechanical sound-making devices, called [[intonarumori]], for Futurist theatrical/music performances starting around 1913. These devices were meant to simulate natural and manmade sounds, such as trains and bombs. Russolo's treatise [[The Art of Noises]], is arguably the first written document on the use of abstract noise in the theatre; he might be called the grandfather of  conceptual sound designers. After his death, his intonarumori were used in more conventional theatre performances to create realistic sound effects.

Possibly the first use of recorded sound in the theatre was a phonograph playing a baby’s cry in a London theatre in 1890. Booth, Michael R. (1991) Theatre In The Victorian. Cambridge University Press ISBN 0521348374 Sixteen years later, Beerbohm Tree definitely used recordings in his London production of Stephen Phillips’ tragedy NERO. The event is marked in the Theatre Magazine (1906) with two photographs; one showing a musician blowing a bugle into a large horn attached to a disc recorder, the other with an actor recording the agonizing shrieks and groans of the tortured martyrs. The article states: “these sounds are all realistically reproduced by the gramophone”. As cited by [[Bertolt Brecht]], there was a play about [[Rasputin]] written in (1927) by [[Alexej Tolstoi]] and directed by [[Erwin Piscator]] that included a recording of [[Lenin]]'s voice. It would not be however until the 1950s, when [[Hollywood]] [[Film director|director]]s started directing [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] productions, that sound design would start growing. Still, there was no sound designer in those plays; it was the [[Stage management|stage manager]]'s duty to find the [[sound effect]]s and an [[electrician]] played the recordings during performances.  But even though the sound designer has basically assumed these roles, time and technology have not ruled out non-sound designers having a hand in sound production.  For instance, since today's audiences are savvier and can readily distinguish between live and recorded sounds, live backstage sound effects are still used (e.g. gun shots) by the stage manager (or assistant stage manager) for premium "aural illusion."

Between 1980 and 1988, [[Charlie Richmond|USITT's first Sound Design Commissioner]] oversaw efforts of their [[Sound Design Commission]] to define the duties, responsibilities, standards and procedures which might normally be expected of a theatre sound designer in North America.  This subject is still regularly discussed by that group, but during that time, substantial conclusions were drawn and he wrote a [http://www.richmondsounddesign.com/txt/sound-design.txt document] which, although now somewhat dated, provides a succinct record of what was expected at that time.  It was subsequently provided to both the ADC and David Goodman at the Florida USA local when they were both planning to represent sound designers in the 1990s.

[[Musical Instrument Digital Interface|MIDI]] and [[digital]] technology helped the field to evolve exponentially during the 1980s and 1990s. Features of computerized [[theatre sound]] design systems were recognized as being essential for live [[show control]] systems by [[Walt Disney World]] when they utilized systems of that type to control many facilities at their ''[[Disney's Hollywood Studios|Disney-MGM Studios]]'' theme park, which opened in 1989.  These features were incorporated into the [[MIDI Show Control]] (MSC) specification, ratified by the [[MIDI Manufacturers Association]] in 1991. The MIDI Show Control standard is an open, industry wide [[communications protocol]] through which all types of show devices may easily interact.

To create the MSC spec, [[Charlie Richmond]] headed the USITT MIDI Forum on their [[Callboard Network]] in 1990, which included developers and designers from the theatre sound and lighting industry from around the world. This Forum created the MIDI Show Control standard between January and September, 1990. This was ratified by the [[MIDI Manufacturers Association]] (MMA) in January 1991, and the [[Japan MIDI Standards Committee]] (JMSC) later that year, becoming a part of the standard MIDI specification in August, 1991. The first show to fully utilize the MSC specification was the [[Magic Kingdom Parade]] at [[Walt Disney World]]'s [[Magic Kingdom]] in September, 1991.

Also, the [[World Wide Web]] has greatly enhanced the ability of sound designers to acquire source material quickly, easily and cheaply.  Nowadays, a designer can preview and download crisper, more "believable" sounds as opposed to toiling through time- and budget-draining "shot-in-the-dark" searches through record stores, libraries and "the grapevine" for (often) inferior recordings.  In addition, software innovation has enabled sound designers to take more of a [[DIY|DIY (or "do-it-yourself")]] approach.  From the comfort of their home and at any hour, they can simply use a computer, speakers and headphones rather than renting (or buying) costly equipment or studio space and time for editing and mixing.  This provides for faster creation and negotiation with the director.

==Film==

{{see also|Sound effect|Sound editor|Foley artist}}

In motion picture production, a ''Sound Designer'' is a member of a [[film crew]] responsible for some original aspect of the film's [[audio track]].  The title is not controlled by any industry organisation, as with the title of [[film director|director]] or [[screenwriter]] in the [[Cinema of the United States|American film industry]].

The terms "''Sound Design''" and "''Sound Designer''" were already in use in [[theatre]] and were introduced to the film world when [[Francis Ford Coppola]] directed (and his father, [[Carmine Coppola]], arranged the music for) a live production of [[Noel Coward]]'s ''[[Private Lives]]'' at the [[American Conservatory Theatre]] (ACT) in [[San Francisco]] where sound designer [[Charlie Richmond]] was resident, while the final cut of the ''[[The Godfather]]'' was being edited in 1972. In the original film world meaning of the title, as established in the 1970s by Coppola and [[Walter Murch]], a sound designer is an individual ultimately responsible for all aspects of a film's audio track, from the [[dialogue]] and [[sound effects]] recording to the [[re-recording (sound/film)|re-recording]] of the final track.  The title was first granted by Coppola to Murch for his work on the film ''[[Apocalypse Now]]'', in recognition for his extraordinary contribution to that film; in this way the position emerged in the same manner the title of [[production designer]] came in to being in the 1930s, when [[William Cameron Menzies]] made revolutionary contributions to the craft of [[art director|art direction]] in the making of ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]''.

This "strong" meaning of the title is meant to imply that the person holding the position is a principal member of the production staff, with tangible creative authority, equivalent to the [[film editor]] and [[director of photography]].  This development can be seen as a natural part of the evolution of [[film sound]].  Several interacting factors contributed to this:

* [[movie theater|Cinema]] [[sound system]]s became capable of [[high-fidelity]] reproduction, and particularly after the adoption of [[Dolby Stereo]].  These systems were originally devised as gimmicks to increase theater attendance, but their widespread implementation created a content vacuum that had to be filled by a competent professional.  Before stereo soundtracks, film sound was of such low fidelity that only the dialogue and occasional sound effects were practical.  The greater dynamic range of the new systems, coupled with the ability to ''place'' sounds to the sides of the audience or behind them, required more creative decisions to be made.

* Directors wanted to realize the new potentials of the medium.  A new generation of filmmakers, the so-called "[[Easy Riders and Raging Bulls]]"—[[Martin Scorsese]], [[Steven Spielberg]], [[George Lucas]], and others—were aware of the creative potential of sound and wanted to use it.

* The new filmmakers were inspired in no small part by the [[popular music]] of the era.  [[Concept albums]] of groups such as [[Pink Floyd]] and [[The Beatles]] suggested new modes of storytelling and creative techniques that could be adapted to motion pictures.

* The new filmmakers made their early films outside the [[Hollywood]] [[the establishment|establishment]], away from the influence of film [[labor union]]s and the then rapidly-dissipating [[studio system]].

As many of these new filmmakers worked in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]], the strong meaning of film sound designer has become associated with films made there, and the production companies situated there, such as [[American Zoetrope]], [[Lucasfilm Limited]] (and its subsidiary [[Skywalker Sound]]), and ''The Saul Zaentz Film Center''.

The role of ''sound designer'' can be compared with the role of ''supervising sound editor''; many sound designers use both titles interchangeably. The role of ''supervising sound editor'', or ''sound supervisor'', developed in parallel with the role of '''sound designer'''. The demand for more sophisticated soundtracks was felt both inside and outside Hollywood, and the '''supervising sound editor''' became the head of the large sound department, with a staff of dozens of [[sound editor]]s, that was required to realize a complete sound job with a fast turnaround. It is far from universal, but the role of sound supervisor descends from the original role of the sound editor, that of a technician required to complete a film, but having little creative authority. Sound designers, on the other hand, are expected to be creative, and their role is a generalization of the other creative department heads.

==Theatre==

{{see also|Sound reinforcement system|Architectural acoustics}}

''Sound design'' is one of the youngest fields in [[stagecraft]], second only to the use of [[digital projection|projection]] and other [[multimedia]] displays. The idea of sound design has been around since theatre started, however the first person to receive a credit as Sound Designer on the poster and in the programme alongside the lighting and scene designers was David Collison for the 59 Theatre Company Season at London's Lyric Theatre, Hammersmith in 1959. The first person to be titled the "sound designer" on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] was Jack Mann for his work on ''Show Girl'' in 1963 [http://ibdb.com/production.asp?ID=2284 IBDB: The official source for Broadway Information], and for regional theatre to Dan Dugan at the [[American Conservatory Theatre]] (ACT), [[San Francisco]] in 1968. Since then the field has been growing rapidly.  The term "Sound Design" was introduced to the film world when [[Francis Ford Coppola]] directed (and his father, [[Carmine Coppola]], arranged the music for) a production of ''[[Private Lives]]'' at ACT, while the final cut of the film ''[[The Godfather]]'' was being edited in 1972.

Currently it can be said that there are two variants of ''Theatrical Sound Design''.  Both are equally important, but very different, though their functions usually overlap. Often a single Sound Designer will fill both these roles, and although on a large budget production they may work together, for the most part there is only one Sound Designer for a given production. Where such distinctions are made, the first variant is "Technical Sound Design" (which has also been termed ''Theatre Sound System Design'' by the [[United States Institute for Theatre Technology]]'s ([[USITT]]) [[Sound Design Commission]]), which is prevalent on Broadway, and the second "Conceptual Sound Design" (which has also been termed ''Theatre Sound Score Design'' by the USITT), which is prevalent at Regional Repertory Theatres. Both variants were created during the 1960s. These terms are really examples only, and not generally used in practice since most Sound Designers simply call themselves Sound Designers, no matter which role they are filling primarily.

''Technical Sound Design'' requires the sound designer to design the sound system that will fulfill the needs of the production.  If there is a sound system already installed in the venue, it is their job to tune the system for the best use for the given production using various methods including equalization, delay, volume, speaker and microphone placement, and this may include the addition of equipment not already provided. In conjunction with the director and musical director, if any, they also determine the use and placement of microphones for actors and musicians.  A Technical Sound Designer makes sure that the performance can be heard and understood by everyone in the audience, no matter how large the room, and that the performers can hear everything they need to in order to do their job.

''Conceptual Sound Design'' is very different from technical sound design, but equally important. The designer must first read the play and talk to the production's [[theater director|Director]] about what themes and messages they want to explore. It is here that, in conjunction with the director and possibly the composer, the designer decides what sounds he or she will use to create mood and setting of the play. He or she might also choose or compose specific music for the play, although the final choice typically lies with the director, who may want nothing but scene change music or, on the other extreme, will want ambient beds under every scene, such as [[Robert Woodruff]] of the [[American Repertory Theater]] or [[William Ball (stage director)|Bill Ball]], [[Ellis Rabb]] and [[Jack O'Brien (director)|Jack O'Brien]] who were active at ACT and the [[Old Globe Theatre]], San Diego, in the mid 1960s where Dan Dugan initially began his art. Many sound designers are indeed accomplished composers, writing and producing music for productions as well as designing sound. With these designers, it is often difficult to discern the line between sound design and music.

Some noted Sound Designers and/or Composers include Bobby Aitken, Paul Arditti, Mark Bennet, Jim Van Bergen, Michael Bodeen, John Bracewell, Andrew Bruce, Ross Brown, Steven Brown, David Budries, David Collison, Adam Cork, Jonathan Deans, Carolyn Downing, Obadiah Eaves, Bruce Ellman, Gregg Fisher, Gareth Fry, Jon Gottlieb, [[John Gromada]], Paul Groothius, Peter Hylenski, Richard B. Ingraham, Abe Jacob (considered by many to be the father of modern Theatre Sound Design), Steve Canyon Kennedy, Norman Kern (known for five productions of The Woman in Black), Hans Peter Kuhn, John Leonard, Tom Mardikes, Tony Meola, Rob Milburn, Otts Munderloh, Joe Pino, Adrienne Quartly, Chris Shutt, Dan Moses Schreier, David Van Tieghem, Richard Thomas, Nancy Tobin, Darron West and Richard Woodbury.

The development of audio technology, particularly over the last 20 years, has enabled Sound Designers to achieve much more flexible, cheaper and complex designs that can be more easily integrated into the constantly changing nature of live performance. The influence of film and television on playwriting is seeing plays being written increasingly with shorter scenes in multiple locations, which is difficult to achieve using traditional scenic solutions but can be conveyed using sound. The development of film sound design is giving writers and directors a higher expectation and knowledge of sound design. Consequently Conceptual Sound Design is becoming the norm, and there are a number of prominent practitioners involved in long-term collaborations with directors, such as between Ann Bogart and Darron West in the Siti Company, where he is in rehearsal from the day one and sound is really another character of the play. On occasion, the director may be very hands-on and will tell the sound designer what sounds to use and where to play them. In such cases, the sound designer becomes little more than an audio editor, but this is increasingly rare.  A Conceptual Sound Designer uses sound to enhance the audience's experience by conveying specific emotion or information without using words.

Above all, both the Technical Sound Designer and the Conceptual Sound Designer must call on experience and "uncommon" sense to ensure that the sound and music are contributing constructively to the production and are in harmony with the work of the actors and other designers.

The union that represents theatrical non-Broadway sound designers in the United States is United Scenic Artists (USA) Local USA829 which is now integrated within [[IATSE]].  Theatrical Sound Designers in English Canada are represented by the [http://www.designers.ca/ Associated Designers of Canada] (ADC) and in Québec by [http://www.apasq.org/ l'Association des professionnels des arts du Québec] (APASQ). Sound Designers on Broadway working on productions falling under the League of American Theatre and Producers contracts (i.e. all Broadway theatrical productions) are represented by IATSE Local One[http://www.iatselocalone.org/index_flash.html], by virtue of Local One's merger with IATSE Local 922, the former Theatrical Sound Designers local union. Local One maintains a binding contract with Broadway producers for work performed on Broadway shows.

CharlieRichmondassembledasethttp://www.richmondsounddesign.com/txt/soun-design.txt of Definitions, Comunication Standards, Recommended Working Procedures, Information List, and suggested Contract Addenda to the ADC in 1990 in order to assist them in creating a Sound Design contract which finally occurred in 2004.

Other audio positions in a production that may or may not be filled by the designer include that of the [[production engineer]].

==Music==

In contemporary music, especially [[rock music]], [[ambient music]], [[progressive rock]], and similar [[genre]]s, the [[record producer]] and [[recording engineer]] play distinct roles in the creation of the overall sound (or [[soundscape]]) of a recording, and less often, of a live performance. The [[record producer]] is chiefly responsible for extracting the best performance possible from the musicians and for making both musical and technical decisions about the instrumental timbres, arrangements, etc. On certain ambitious and complex recording projects, artists and producers have relied on sonic consultants, often credited as "sound designer", to help them to create specific auditory effects, landscapes, or to ensure an overall consistency and quality of some of the (usually unconventional) sonic elements. In such arrangements, the producer may put almost all of his or her attention on managing the recording session and working closely with the musicians on their performances and interpretations of the material; the [[recording engineer]] may dedicate all of his or her time to capturing these performances on tape (or hard disk); the [[sound designer]] may then help to create the overall sound, the integration of recording technology with musical instrument technology, the presentation that is the phonographic equivalent of decisions in movie-making about what type of lens to use on the camera, whether or not to use soft focus, and what kind of lighting to use on a scene.

In applied research in electroacoustic and computer programming for contemporary music or electronic music, the Sound Designer is a specialist who is usually there to help the composer to do the electroacoustic portion of the composition. Often, the composer comes with an idea (concept + score) and the Sound Designer assists the composer with new technology and unique equipment. Examples include sound synthesis, interaction between acoustic instruments and computers, realization of a computer program in many different languages (often Max-MSP/Jitter), gesture capture with sensors or cameras, video treatment and interaction between video and sound. Historically, the Sound Designer was often called the "Musical Assistant".

Some of the many examples of research centers working with Sound Designers include [http://www.fnm.de Forum Neues Musiktheater] of Stuttgart, [http://www.ircam.fr IRCAM] in Paris or [http://www.synart.org synArt] in Antibes.

Notable examples of sound design are the contributions of [[Michael Brook]] to the [[U2]] album ''[[The Joshua Tree]]'', [[George Massenburg]] to the [[Jennifer Warnes]] album ''[[Famous Blue Raincoat]]'', [[Chris Thomas (record producer)|Chris Thomas]] to the [[Pink Floyd]] album ''[[The Dark Side of the Moon]]'', and [[Brian Eno]] to the [[Paul Simon]] album ''[[Surprise (Paul Simon album)|Surprise]]''.

===Awards===

Even though there have been continual, extraordinary advances in technology and even more demand for top-quality sound, sound design is still struggling to obtain acceptance. On [[June 19]] [[2007]] a new category was added to the [[Tony Awards]] honoring sound design.

Some of the major North American theatrical award organizations that recognize sound designers are

* [http://www.tapa.ca/doras/ Dora Mavor Moore Awards]

* [http://www.dramadesk.com Drama Desk Awards]

* ''[[Helen Hayes Awards Resident Design|Helen Hayes Awards]]''

* ''[[Obie Awards]]''

* ''[[Tony Awards]]''

The British equivalent of these are

* ''[[Olivier Awards]]''

（原文出处：http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_design）